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<title>Trans fat</title>

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Trans fat

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#eee">Types of <a href="Fat" title="Fat">fats</a> in <a href="Food" title="Food">food</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left">

<ul><li><a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">Saturated fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsaturated_fat" title="Unsaturated fat">Unsaturated fat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Monounsaturated_fat" title="Monounsaturated fat">Monounsaturated fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyunsaturated_fat" title="Polyunsaturated fat">Polyunsaturated fat</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee">

Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left">

<ul><li><a href="Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acid</a> (<a href="Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acid</a>)

<ul><li><a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">Omega−3</a></li>

<li><a href="Omega-6_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">Omega−6</a></li>

<li><a href="Omega-7_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-7 fatty acid">Omega−7</a></li>

<li><a href="Omega-9_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-9 fatty acid">Omega−9</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">Triglyceride</a></li>

<li><a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee">

Manufactured fats</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left">

<ul><li><a href="Fat_hydrogenation" title="Fat hydrogenation">Fat hydrogenation</a>

<li><a href="Fat_interesterification" title="Fat interesterification">Fat interesterification</a></li></ul></td>

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Trans fat is a type of <a href="Unsaturated_fat" title="Unsaturated fat">unsaturated fat</a> that occurs in foods.<a href="#cite_note-ec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-fda-24-2">[2]</a> Small amounts of trans fats occur naturally, but large amounts are found in some processed foods made with partially hydrogenated oils.<a href="#cite_note-ec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-fda-24-2">[2]</a> Because consumption of trans fats is associated with increased risk for <a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular diseases</a>, artificial trans fats are highly regulated or banned in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-efsa-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-nhs-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-brouwer-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-whoupdate-7">[7]</a> However, they are still widely consumed in <a href="Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nations</a> where they are associated with increased risk of <a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, cardiovascular diseases, and death.<a href="#cite_note-souza-8">[8]</a>

In 2015, the US <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) stated that artificial trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils were not <a href="Generally_recognized_as_safe" title="Generally recognized as safe">generally recognized as safe</a> (GRAS), and the use of such oils and trans fats should be limited or eliminated from manufactured foods.<a href="#cite_note-fda-24-2">[2]</a> Numerous governing bodies, including the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, Canada, and Australia/New Zealand, followed with restrictions or bans on the use of partially hydrogenated oils and trans fats in food manufacturing.<a href="#cite_note-ec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-ausnz-9">[9]</a> The <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) had set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023.<a href="#cite_note-wholetter-10">[10]</a> The goal was not met, and the WHO announced another goal in 2024 "for accelerated action until 2025 to complete this effort".<a href="#cite_note-whoupdate-7">[7]</a>

Trans fatty acids (also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids) are derived from trans fats, which are <a href="Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a> (<a href="Ester" title="Ester">esters</a> of glycerin). Trans fats are converted to trans fatty acids in the digestive tract prior to absorption.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2></div>

Trans fats occur naturally in the fats of products made from <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a> animals, such as cheese or butter. Some trans fats are the result of food processing, especially when applied to <a href="Cooking_oil" title="Cooking oil">cooking oils</a> and <a href="Margarine" title="Margarine">margarine</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naturally-occurring_trans_fats">Naturally-occurring trans fats</h3></div>

Trans fats occur in meat and dairy products from ruminants. For example, butter contains about 3% trans fat by weight.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> These naturally occurring trans fats include <a href="Conjugated_linoleic_acid" title="Conjugated linoleic acid">conjugated linoleic acid</a> (CLA) and <a href="Vaccenic_acid" title="Vaccenic acid">vaccenic acid</a>. They arise from the action of bacteria in the rumen. Polyunsaturated fats are toxic to the rumen-based bacteria, which detoxify the fats by changing some cis-double bonds to trans-double bonds. In contrast to industrially produced trans fats, this bacterial process produces only a few specific isomers. As industrial sources of trans fats are eliminated, increased attention focuses on ruminant derived trans fats.<a href="#cite_note-Alves-12">[12]</a>

Small amounts of trans fats occur in <a href="Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> and <a href="Milk_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk fat">milk fat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kuhnt2011-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogenation">Hydrogenation</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Fat_hydrogenation" title="Fat hydrogenation">Fat hydrogenation</a></div>

Trans fat can be an unintentional byproduct of the industrial processing of oils. Unlike naturally derived trans fats, the trans fats that result from hydrogenation consist of many isomers. In food production, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce more saturated fats, which have desirable properties:

<ul><li>The shelf life of fats correlates with the degree of saturation: polyunsaturated fats are prone to <a href="Autoxidation" title="Autoxidation">autoxidation</a> whereas saturated fats, being virtually inert in air, have very long shelf lives.</li>

<li>Saturated fats tend to be more solid at room temperature. This property is important for <a href="Margarine" title="Margarine">margarine</a>, one of the original uses for fat hydrogenation.</li></ul>

However, an isomerization <a href="Side_reaction" title="Side reaction">side reaction</a> during <a href="Fat_hydrogenation" title="Fat hydrogenation">fat hydrogenation</a> can convert remaining unsaturated fats to the thermodynamically-favored trans isomer.

A number of old and new ingredients are available to replace partially-hydrogenated oil containing significant levels of trans fat. These include partially-hydrogenated oil made with improved processes, plant oils rich in <a href="Monounsaturated_fat" title="Monounsaturated fat">monounsaturated fats</a> and <a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fats</a>, and a mix of fats combined with <a href="Interesterified_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Interesterified fat">interesterification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TTT2006-14">[14]</a> The technology has improved such that a 2021 review indicates that trans fat from hydrogenated fats is no longer a problem in modern countries.<a href="#cite_note-Alves-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_isomerization">Thermal isomerization</h3></div>

When heated (cooked), some unsaturated fats change from their normal geometry to trans. The rate of isomerization is accelerated by free radicals.<a href="#cite_note-chemrev-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-CSPI1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-GRAS?-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

There were suggestions in the scientific literature as early as 1956 that trans fats could cause an increase in <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvard-18">[18]</a> Studies in the early 1990s brought renewed scrutiny and confirmation of the negative health impact of trans fats. In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused at least 20,000 deaths annually in the U.S. from heart disease.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8179036-19">[19]</a> In the 1990s, activists such as the <a href="Center_for_Science_in_the_Public_Interest" title="Center for Science in the Public Interest">Center for Science in the Public Interest</a>(CSPI) that had promoted trans fat safety began arguing that trans fats should be disclosed on product labels and menus.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Several lawsuits were launched against high-visibility restaurants and food manufacturers with the objective of supporting a broader phase-out of trans fats.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

Mandatory food labeling was introduced in several countries<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and Denmark was first to mandate limits on industrially-produced trans fats in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the U.S. <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon, or up to 7% by weight; or less than 0.5 grams per serving size)<a href="#cite_note-21CFR-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FDA05-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Newswise-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shock-29">[29]</a> by boosting the saturation and then diluting the resulting solid fat with unsaturated vegetable oils. Noting that elimination of industrially produced trans fat is feasible and achievable, the <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) has set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023. By the end of 2021, the WHO announced that 40 countries had implemented industrial trans fat elimination policies that "are protecting 1.4 billion people from this deadly food compound" but that 10 of the 15 countries suffering the highest health impacts from trans fats had not yet adopted a policy.<a href="#cite_note-wholetter-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div>

A fatty acid is characterized as either saturated or unsaturated based on the respective absence or presence of C=C double bonds in its backbone. If the molecule contains no double C=C bonds, it is said to be saturated; otherwise, it is unsaturated to some degree.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

The C=C double bond is rotationally rigid. If the hydrogen bonded to each of the carbons in this double bond are on the same side, this is called cis, and leads to a bent molecular chain. If the two hydrogens are on opposite sides, this is called trans, and leads to a straight chain.

<th style="width:300px;">Trans unsaturated (<a href="Elaidic_acid" title="Elaidic acid">Elaidic acid</a>)

</th>

<th style="width:250px;">Cis unsaturated (<a href="Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">Oleic acid</a>)

</th>

<th style="width:250px;">Saturated (<a href="Stearic_acid" title="Stearic acid">Stearic acid</a>)

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Elaidic acid is the main trans unsaturated fatty acid often found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils.<a href="#cite_note-Alonso-32">[32]</a>

</td>

<td>Oleic acid is a cis unsaturated fatty acid making up 55–80% of olive oil.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

</td>

<td>Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in animal fats and is the intended product in full hydrogenation. Stearic acid is neither unsaturated nor trans because it has no carbon-carbon double bonds.

</td></tr>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">These fatty acids are <a href="Geometric_isomer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometric isomer">geometric isomers</a> (structurally identical except for the arrangement of the double bond).

</td>

<td>This fatty acid contains no carbon-carbon double bonds and is not isomeric with the prior two.

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Because trans fats are more linear, they crystallize more easily, allowing them to be solid (rather than liquid) at room temperatures. This has several processing and storage advantages.

In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have <a href="Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism" title="Cis–trans isomerism">cis configurations as opposed to trans</a> configurations.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Saturated fatty acids (those without any carbon-carbon <a href="Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bonds</a>) are abundant (see <a href="Tallow" title="Tallow">tallow</a>), but they also can be generated from unsaturated fats by the process of <a href="Fat_hydrogenation" title="Fat hydrogenation">fat hydrogenation</a>. In the course of hydrogenation, some cis double bonds convert into trans double bonds. Chemists call this conversion an <a href="Isomerization_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerization reaction">isomerization reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CSPI1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-GRAS?-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

Any molecule with a C=C double bond can be either a trans or a cis fatty acid depending on the configuration of the double bond. For example, <a href="Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">oleic acid</a> and <a href="Elaidic_acid" title="Elaidic acid">elaidic acid</a> are both unsaturated fatty acids with the <a href="Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical formula</a> C9H17C9H17O2.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-36">[36]</a> They both have a double bond located midway along the carbon chain. It is the geometry of this bond that sets oleic and elaidic acids apart. They have distinct <a href="Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical-chemical</a> properties of the molecule. For example, the melting point of elaidic acid is 45 <a href="Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> higher than that of oleic acid.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-36">[36]</a> This notably means that it is a solid at human body temperatures.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogenation_as_a_source_of_trans_fats">Hydrogenation as a source of trans fats</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Fat_hydrogenation" title="Fat hydrogenation">Fat hydrogenation</a></div>

The hydrogenation process was widely adopted by the food industry in the early 1900s; first for the production of <a href="Margarine" title="Margarine">margarine</a>, a replacement for butter and shortening,<a href="#cite_note-gorm2010-37">[37]</a> and eventually for various other fats used in snack food, packaged baked goods, and deep fried products.<a href="#cite_note-GRAS?-17">[17]</a>

Full hydrogenation of a fat or oil produces a fully saturated fat. For food purposes, hydrogenation generally is not allowed to go to completion. The main target is a specific melting point and hardness, and this fine-tuning requires that some unsaturation (C=C bonds) remain. This partial hydrogenation turns some of the cis double bonds into trans bonds by an <a href="Isomerization_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerization reaction">isomerization reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GRAS?-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-hill2007-38">[38]</a> This side reaction accounts for most of the trans fatty acids consumed today, by far.<a href="#cite_note-ashok2009-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alfonso_Valenzuel,_Nora_Morgado_1999-40">[40]</a>

The standard 140 kPa (20 psi) process of hydrogenation produces a product of about 40% trans fatty acid by weight, compared to about 17% using higher pressures of hydrogen. Blended with unhydrogenated liquid soybean oil, the high-pressure-processed oil produced margarine containing 5 to 6% trans fat. Based on current U.S. labeling requirements (see below), the manufacturer could claim the product was free of trans fat.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The level of trans fat may also be altered by modification of the temperature and the length of time during hydrogenation.

The trans fat levels can be quantified using various forms of <a href="Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-chemrev-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presence_in_food">Presence in food</h2></div>

<caption>Trans fat contents in various foods, ranked in g per 100 g<a href="#cite_note-tarr2006-42">[42]</a>

</caption>

<th>Food type

</th>

<th>Trans fat content

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>shortenings

</td>

<td>10–33

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>margarine, stick

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>butter

</td>

<td>2–7

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>whole milk

</td>

<td>0.07–0.1

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>breads/cake products

</td>

<td>0.1–10

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>cookies and crackers

</td>

<td>1–8

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tortilla chips

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>cake frostings, sweets

</td>

<td>0.1–7

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>animal fat

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ground beef

</td>

<td>1

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_fats">Animal fats</h3></div>

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a> (such as cattle and sheep),<a href="#cite_note-kuhnt2011-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> typically 2–5% of total fat.<a href="#cite_note-tfca2006-46">[46]</a> Natural TFAs, which include <a href="Conjugated_linoleic_acid" title="Conjugated linoleic acid">conjugated linoleic acid</a> (CLA) and vaccenic acid, originate in the <a href="Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a> of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the cis configuration and one in trans, which makes it simultaneously a cis- and a trans-fatty acid.<a href="#cite_note-mejo0000-47">[47]</a>

A type of trans fat occurs naturally in the milk and body fat of <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a> (such as cattle and sheep) at a level of 2–5% of total fat.<a href="#cite_note-Canada-44">[44]</a>

The US National Dairy Council has asserted that the trans fats present in foods of animal origin are of a different type than those in partially hydrogenated oils, and do not appear to exhibit the same negative effects.<a href="#cite_note-dairy-48">[48]</a> A scientific review agrees with the conclusion (stating that "the sum of the current evidence suggests that the Public health implications of consuming trans fats from ruminant products are relatively limited") but cautions that this may be due to the low consumption of trans fats from animal sources compared to artificial ones.<a href="#cite_note-NEJM-43">[43]</a>

Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not included eliminating trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and thus its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional imbalances if proper nutritional planning is not undertaken. The NAS has, thus, "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Like the NAS, the <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.<a href="#cite_note-Canada-44">[44]</a>

A meta-analysis showed that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels.<a href="#cite_note-brouwer-6">[6]</a> Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-Tricon_S,_Burdge_GC,_Kew_S,_et_al._2004_614–20-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-zulet2005-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_"trans_fats"_in_dairy_products">Natural "trans fats" in dairy products</h3></div>

Some trans fatty acids occur in natural fats and traditionally processed foods. Vaccenic acid occurs in breast milk, and some <a href="Isomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomers">isomers</a> of <a href="Conjugated_linoleic_acid" title="Conjugated linoleic acid">conjugated linoleic acid</a> (CLA) are found in meat and dairy products from ruminants. Butter, for example, contains about 3% trans fat.<a href="#cite_note-usda2010xx-52">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processed_foods">Processed foods</h3></div>

Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years, especially after 1950 as processed food rose in popularity.<a href="#cite_note-Alfonso_Valenzuel,_Nora_Morgado_1999-40">[40]</a>

Animal-based fats were once the only trans fats consumed, but by far the largest amount of trans fat consumed today is created by the processed food industry as a side effect of partially hydrogenating unsaturated plant fats (generally vegetable oils). These partially hydrogenated fats have displaced natural solid fats and liquid oils in many areas, the most notable ones being in the fast food, <a href="Snack_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Snack food">snack food</a>, fried food, and baked goods industries.<a href="#cite_note-Ashok-53">[53]</a>

Up to 45% of the total fat in those foods containing human-made trans fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may be trans fat.<a href="#cite_note-Canada-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-tfca2006-46">[46]</a> An analysis of some industrialized foods in 2006 found up to 30% "trans fats" in artificial shortening, 10% in breads and cake products, 8% in cookies and crackers, 4% in salty snacks, 7% in cake frostings and sweets, and 26% in margarine and other processed spreads.<a href="#cite_note-tarr2006-42">[42]</a> Another 2010 analysis however found only 0.2% of trans fats in margarine and other processed spreads.<a href="#cite_note-ausfn2010-54">[54]</a>

Foods containing higher amounts of trans fat are associated with fast food restaurants.<a href="#cite_note-Alfonso_Valenzuel,_Nora_Morgado_1999-40">[40]</a> They are consumed in greater quantities by people who lack access to a diet consisting of fewer partially-hydrogenated fats, or who often consume fast food. A diet high in trans fats can contribute to obesity, high blood pressure, and higher risk for heart disease. Trans fat is also implicated in Type 2 diabetes.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shortenings">Shortenings</h3></div>

Shortenings, because they are widely used, are of particular concern. Baking shortenings, unless reformulated, contain around 30% trans fats compared to their total fats. High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%. Margarines not reformulated to reduce trans fats may contain up to 15% trans fat by weight,<a href="#cite_note-Hunter-56">[56]</a> but some reformulated ones are less than 1% trans fat. Shortenings for deep-frying in restaurants can be used for longer than most conventional oils before becoming rancid. In the early 21st century, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings became available.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In fast-food chains, trans fat levels in fast food can vary with location. For example, an analysis of samples of McDonald's French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in <a href="Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, and 28 times as much as in <a href="Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, where trans fats are restricted. At <a href="KFC" title="KFC">KFC</a>, the pattern was reversed, with Hungary's product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the U.S. there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from <a href="Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

<caption>Trans fat contents in various natural and traditionally processed foods, in g per 100 g <a href="#cite_note-tarr2006-42">[42]</a>

</caption>

<th>Food type

</th>

<th>Trans fat content

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>butter

</td>

<td>2 to 7 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>whole milk

</td>

<td>0.07 to 0.1 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>animal fat

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ground beef

</td>

<td>1 g

</td></tr></tbody></table>

High levels of TFAs have been recorded in popular "fast food" meals.<a href="#cite_note-Alfonso_Valenzuel,_Nora_Morgado_1999-40">[40]</a> An analysis of samples of <a href="McDonald's" title="McDonald's">McDonald's</a> French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in <a href="Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, and 28 times as much as in <a href="Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, where trans fats are restricted. For <a href="Kentucky_Fried_Chicken" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentucky Fried Chicken">Kentucky Fried Chicken</a> products, the pattern was reversed: the Hungarian product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the United States, there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from <a href="Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nbc2006ym-59">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breast_milk">Breast milk</h3></div>

It has been established that trans fats in human <a href="Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a> fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk. In 1999, reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk ranged from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in Germany, and 7% in Canada and the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulatory_action">Regulatory action</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Trans_fat_regulation" title="Trans fat regulation">Trans fat regulation</a></div>

In the last few decades, there has been substantial amount of <a href="Trans_fat_regulation" title="Trans fat regulation">regulation</a> in many countries, limiting trans fat contents of industrialized and commercial food products.

In light of recognized evidence and scientific agreement, nutritional authorities consider all trans fats equally harmful for health and recommend that their consumption be reduced to trace amounts.<a href="#cite_note-ec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-fda-24-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-efsa-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-nhs-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-ausnz-9">[9]</a> In 2003, the WHO recommended that trans fats make up no more than 0.9% of a person's diet<a href="#cite_note-tfca2006-46">[46]</a> and, in 2018, introduced a 6-step guide to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from the global food supply.<a href="#cite_note-who2018yb-61">[61]</a>

The <a href="United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS) advises the U.S. and Canadian governments on nutritional science for use in public policy and product labeling programs. Their 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids<a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yn-62">[62]</a> contains their findings and recommendations regarding consumption of trans fat.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a>

Their recommendations are based on two key facts. First, "trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health",<a href="#cite_note-p423-64">[64]</a> whether of animal or plant origin.<a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yo-65">[65]</a> Second, given their documented effects on the LDL/HDL ratio,<a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yp-66">[66]</a> the NAS concluded "that dietary trans fatty acids are more deleterious with respect to coronary artery disease than saturated fatty acids". A 2006 review stated "from a nutritional standpoint, the consumption of trans fatty acids results in considerable potential harm but no apparent benefit."<a href="#cite_note-NEJM-43">[43]</a>

Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary artery disease.<a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yp-66">[66]</a>

Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not included eliminating trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and thus its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional imbalances. The NAS has, thus, "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet".<a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yr-67">[67]</a> Like the NAS, the WHO has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.<a href="#cite_note-tfca2006-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2></div>

While trans fatty acids (popularly called "trans fats") are edible, they have been implicated in many health problems.<a href="#cite_note-menaa2013-68">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiovascular_disease">Cardiovascular disease</h3></div>

The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a> (CAD).<a href="#cite_note-NEJM-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-uksi1996-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-tftf2006-71">[71]</a> A 1994 study estimated that over 30,000 cardiac deaths per year in the United States are attributable to the consumption of trans fats.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8179036-19">[19]</a> By 2006 upper estimates of 100,000 deaths were suggested.<a href="#cite_note-B-72">[72]</a>

Major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CAD comes from the <a href="Nurses'_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a> – a <a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">cohort study</a> that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's <a href="Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">population</a> during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CAD risk roughly doubled (<a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> of 1.93, <a href="Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">CI</a>: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (<a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> of 1.17, <a href="Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">CI</a>: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates."<a href="#cite_note-nhs97-73">[73]</a> Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of <a href="Food_energy" title="Food energy">food energy</a> from trans fat with non-trans <a href="Unsaturated_fat" title="Unsaturated fat">unsaturated fats</a> more than halves the risk of CAD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CAD by 43%.<a href="#cite_note-nhs97-73">[73]</a>

Another study considered deaths due to CAD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of <a href="Polyunsaturated_fat" title="Polyunsaturated fat">polyunsaturated fats</a> being linked to a decrease in mortality.<a href="#cite_note-tftf2006-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-oh2005-74">[74]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytical_data_(blood_work)">Analytical data (blood work)</h3></div>

Consuming trans fats has been shown to increase the risk of <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a> in part by raising levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, often termed "bad cholesterol"), lowering levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, often termed "good cholesterol"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-p423-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-fnb2005yp-66">[66]</a>

Trans fat has been found to act like saturated in raising the blood level of LDL ("bad cholesterol"); but, unlike saturated fat, it also decreases levels of HDL ("good cholesterol"). The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat, a widely accepted indicator of risk for coronary artery disease, is approximately double that due to saturated fat.<a href="#cite_note-asch1999-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-mens1990-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-mens2003zc-77">[77]</a> One randomized <a href="Crossover_study" title="Crossover study">crossover study</a> published in 2003 comparing the effect <a href="Postprandial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postprandial">of eating a meal</a> on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans-fat-rich meals showed that <a href="Cholesteryl_ester" title="Cholesteryl ester">cholesteryl ester</a> transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in <a href="Apolipoprotein" title="Apolipoprotein">apolipoprotein</a>(a) after the trans meals.<a href="#cite_note-gatto2003-78">[78]</a>

The <a href="Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine test</a> is a potentially more reliable indicator of CAD risk, although is still being studied.<a href="#cite_note-tftf2006-71">[71]</a> A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest <a href="Quartile" title="Quartile">quartile</a> of trans fat consumption had blood levels of <a href="C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a> (CRP) that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2005zd-79">[79]</a>

Intake of dietary trans fat perturbs the body's ability to metabolize <a href="Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">essential fatty acids</a> (EFAs, including <a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3</a>) leading to changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the arterial walls, thereby raising risk of coronary artery disease.<a href="#cite_note-kumm2004yu-80">[80]</a>

There are two accepted tests that measure an individual's risk for coronary artery disease, both <a href="Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a>. The first considers <a href="Ratio" title="Ratio">ratios</a> of two types of <a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>, the other the amount of a cell-signalling <a href="Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine</a> called <a href="C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a>. The effect of trans fat consumption has been documented on each as follows:

<ul><li>Cholesterol ratio: This ratio compares the levels of LDL to HDL. Trans fat behaves like <a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fat</a> by raising the level of LDL, but, unlike saturated fat, it has the additional effect of decreasing levels of HDL. The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat is approximately double that due to saturated fat.<a href="#cite_note-asch1999-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-mens1990-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-mens2003zc-77">[77]</a> (Higher ratios are worse.) One randomized <a href="Crossover_study" title="Crossover study">crossover study</a> published in 2003 comparing the effect <a href="Postprandial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postprandial">of eating a meal</a> on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans fat rich meals showed that <a href="Cholesteryl_ester" title="Cholesteryl ester">cholesteryl ester</a> transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in <a href="Apolipoprotein" title="Apolipoprotein">apolipoprotein</a>(a) after the trans meals.<a href="#cite_note-gatto-81">[81]</a></li>

<li>C-reactive protein (CRP): A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest <a href="Quartile" title="Quartile">quartile</a> of trans fat consumption had blood levels of CRP that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2005zd-79">[79]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical_mechanisms">Biochemical mechanisms</h3></div>

The mechanisms through which trans fatty acids contribute to coronary artery disease are fairly well understood. The mechanism for their effects on diabetes is still under investigation. They may impair the metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs).<a href="#cite_note-mojs2003-82">[82]</a> However, maternal pregnancy trans fatty acid intake has been inversely associated with LCPUFAs levels in infants at birth thought to underlie the positive association between breastfeeding and intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-kole1997-83">[83]</a>

Trans fats are processed by the <a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> differently than other fats. They may cause <a href="Liver_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver function">liver dysfunction</a> by interfering with delta 6 <a href="Desaturase" class="mw-redirect" title="Desaturase">desaturase</a>, an <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> involved in converting essential fatty acids to <a href="Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a> and <a href="Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.<a href="#cite_note-mahf1981zo-84">[84]</a>

Intake of dietary trans fat disrupts the body's ability to metabolize <a href="Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">essential fatty acids</a> (EFAs, including <a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">Omega-3</a>) leading to changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the arterial walls, thereby raising risk of coronary artery disease.<a href="#cite_note-kumm2004yu-80">[80]</a>

The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CAD comes from the <a href="Nurses'_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a> – a <a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">cohort study</a> that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's <a href="Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">population</a> during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CAD risk roughly doubled (<a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> of 1.93, <a href="Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">CI</a>: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (<a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> of 1.17, <a href="Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">CI</a>: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates."<a href="#cite_note-nhs97-73">[73]</a> Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of <a href="Food_energy" title="Food energy">food energy</a> from trans fat with non-trans <a href="Unsaturated_fat" title="Unsaturated fat">unsaturated fats</a> more than halves the risk of CAD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CAD by 43%.<a href="#cite_note-nhs97-73">[73]</a>

Another study considered deaths due to CAD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of <a href="Polyunsaturated_fat" title="Polyunsaturated fat">polyunsaturated fats</a> being linked to a decrease in mortality.<a href="#cite_note-oh2005-74">[74]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_health_risks">Other health risks</h3></div>

Scientific studies have examined other negative effects of industrial trans fat beyond cardiovascular disease, with the next most studied area being type-2 diabetes.

<ul><li><a href="Alzheimer's_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>: A study published in <a href="Archives_of_Neurology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archives of Neurology">Archives of Neurology</a> in February 2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promote the development of Alzheimer disease,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> although not confirmed in an animal model.<a href="#cite_note-phivilay-86">[86]</a> It has been found that trans fats impaired memory and learning in middle-age rats. The trans-fat eating rats' brains had fewer proteins critical to healthy neurological function and inflammation in and around the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory. These are the exact types of changes normally seen at the onset of Alzheimer's, but seen after six weeks, even though the rats were still young.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> A systematic review of five articles based on four <a href="Prospective_cohort_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Prospective cohort studies">prospective cohort studies</a> of individuals did not find a robust association between their intake of trans fatty acids and development of Alzheimer's disease (or several other forms of <a href="Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>). The review based this conclusion on finding that 4 of the 5 reports appeared biased and therefore recommended more well-designed prospective studies to clarify this issue.<a href="#cite_note-pmid35950105-88">[88]</a></li>

<li><a href="Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a>: In 2007 the American Cancer Society stated that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been determined."<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> One study has found a positive connection between trans fat and prostate cancer.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> However, a larger study found a correlation between trans fats and a significant decrease in high-grade prostate cancer.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> An increased intake of trans fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75%, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li>

<li><a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a>: There is a growing concern that the risk of <a href="Diabetes_mellitus_type_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 2">type 2 diabetes</a> increases with trans fat consumption.<a href="#cite_note-souza-8">[8]</a> However, consensus has not been reached.<a href="#cite_note-NEJM-43">[43]</a> For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest <a href="Quartile" title="Quartile">quartile</a> of trans fat consumption.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li>

<li><a href="Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a>: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Obesity_2007-98">[98]</a> Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is not a strong scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity, although the 6-year experiment did find such a link, concluding that "under controlled feeding conditions, long-term TFA consumption was an independent factor in weight gain. TFAs enhanced intra-abdominal deposition of fat, even in the absence of caloric excess, and were associated with insulin resistance, with evidence that there is impaired post-insulin receptor binding signal transduction."<a href="#cite_note-Obesity_2007-98">[98]</a></li>

<li><a href="Liver_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver function">Liver dysfunction</a>: Trans fats are metabolized differently by the <a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> than other fats and interfere with delta 6 <a href="Desaturase" class="mw-redirect" title="Desaturase">desaturase</a>. Delta 6 desaturase is an <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> involved in converting essential fatty acids to <a href="Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a> and <a href="Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.<a href="#cite_note-mahf1981zo-84">[84]</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_infertility" title="Female infertility">Infertility in women</a>: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility...".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li>

<li><a href="Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a>: Spanish researchers analysed the diets of 12,059 people over six years and found that those who ate the most trans fats had a 48 per cent higher risk of depression than those who did not eat trans fats.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> One mechanism may be trans-fats' substitution for <a href="Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA) levels in the <a href="Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a> (OFC). Very high intake of trans-fatty acids (43% of total fat) in mice from 2 to 16 months of age was associated with lowered DHA levels in the brain (p=0.001).<a href="#cite_note-phivilay-86">[86]</a> When the brains of 15 major depressive subjects who had committed <a href="Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> were examined post-mortem and compared against 27 age-matched controls, the suicidal brains were found to have 16% less (male average) to 32% less (female average) DHA in the OFC. The OFC controls <a href="Reward_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reward (psychology)">reward</a>, reward expectation, and <a href="Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> (all of which are reduced in depressive mood disorders) and regulates the <a href="Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mcnamara-102">[102]</a></li>

<li>Behavioral <a href="Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a> and <a href="Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a>: a 2012 observational analysis of subjects of an earlier study found a strong relation between dietary trans fat acids and self-reported behavioral aggression and irritability, suggesting but not establishing causality.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li>

<li>Diminished <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>: In a 2015 article, researchers re-analyzing results from the 1999-2005 UCSD Statin Study argue that "greater dietary trans fatty acid consumption is linked to worse word memory in adults during years of high productivity."<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li>

<li><a href="Acne" title="Acne">Acne</a>: According to a 2015 study, trans fats are one of several components of <a href="Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Western pattern diets</a> which promote acne, along with <a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> with high <a href="Glycemic_load" title="Glycemic load">glycemic load</a> such as <a href="White_sugar" title="White sugar">refined sugars</a> or <a href="Refined_grains" title="Refined grains">refined starches</a>, <a href="Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> and <a href="Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">dairy products</a>, and <a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fats</a>, while <a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3 fatty acids</a>, which reduce acne, are deficient in Western pattern diets.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_industry_response">Food industry response</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manufacturer_response">Manufacturer response</h3></div>

<a href="Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">Palm oil</a>, a natural oil extracted from the fruit of oil palm trees that is semi-solid at room temperature (15–25 degrees Celsius), can potentially serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fats in baking and processed food applications, although there is disagreement about whether replacing partially hydrogenated fats with palm oil confers any health benefits. A 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer <a href="Kraft_Foods" title="Kraft Foods">Kraft Foods</a> in an attempt to force Kraft to remove trans fats from the <a href="Oreo" title="Oreo">Oreo</a> cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo.

<a href="The_J.M._Smucker_Company" title="The J.M. Smucker Company">The J.M. Smucker Company</a>, then the American manufacturer of <a href="Crisco" title="Crisco">Crisco</a> (the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid saturated palm oil cut with <a href="Soybean_oil" title="Soybean oil">soybean oil</a> and <a href="Sunflower_oil" title="Sunflower oil">sunflower oil</a>. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the prior partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 <a href="Tablespoon" title="Tablespoon">tablespoon</a> serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco).<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> As of 24 January 2007, Smucker said that all Crisco shortening products in the US had been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter.<a href="#cite_note-crisco-109">[109]</a> The separately marketed trans fat free version introduced in 2004 was discontinued.

On 22 May 2004, <a href="Unilever" title="Unilever">Unilever</a>, the corporate descendant of <a href="Joseph_Crosfield" title="Joseph Crosfield">Joseph Crosfield</a> & Sons (the original producer of <a href="Wilhelm_Normann" title="Wilhelm Normann">Wilhelm Normann</a>'s hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they had eliminated trans fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship <a href="Becel" title="Becel">Becel</a> brand.<a href="#cite_note-canlist-110">[110]</a>

Agribusiness giant <a href="Bunge_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunge Limited">Bunge Limited</a>, through their Bunge Oils division, produce an NT product line of non-hydrogenated oils, <a href="Margarine" title="Margarine">margarines</a> and shortenings, made from corn, <a href="Rapeseed_oil" title="Rapeseed oil">canola</a>, and soy oils.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_users'_response">Major users' response</h3></div>

Beginning around 2000, as the scientific evidence and public concern about trans fat increased, major American users of trans fat began to switch to safer alternatives. The process received a large boost in 2003 when the FDA announced it would require trans fat labeling on packaged food starting in 2006. Packaged food companies then faced the choice of either eliminating trans fat from their products, or having to declare the trans fat on their nutrition label. Lawsuits in the U.S. against trans fat users also encouraged its removal.

Major American fast food chains including <a href="McDonald's" title="McDonald's">McDonald's</a>, <a href="Burger_King" title="Burger King">Burger King</a>, <a href="KFC" title="KFC">KFC</a> and <a href="Wendy's" title="Wendy's">Wendy's</a> reduced and then removed partially hydrogenated oils (containing artificial trans fats) by 2009. This was a major step toward trans fat removal, as french fries were one of the largest sources of trans fat in the American diet, with a large serving of fries typically having about 6 grams of trans fat until around 2007.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-CSPI-KFC1-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>

Two other events were important in the removal of trans fat. First, in 2013 the FDA announced it planned to completely ban artificial trans fat in the form of partially hydrogenated oil. Second, soon after this, <a href="Walmart" title="Walmart">Walmart</a> informed its suppliers they needed to remove trans fat by 2015 if they wanted to continue to sell their products at its stores. As Walmart is the largest brick-and-mortar retailer in the U.S., mainstream food brands had little choice but to comply.<a href="#cite_note-McDs-120">[120]</a>

These reformulations can be partly attributed to 2006 <a href="Center_for_Science_in_the_Public_Interest" title="Center for Science in the Public Interest">Center for Science in the Public Interest</a> <a href="Class_action" title="Class action">class action</a> complaints, and to New York's restaurant trans fat ban, a massive effort led by Minal Amlani under the guidance of <a href="Michael_Bloomberg" title="Michael Bloomberg">Michael Bloomberg</a>, with companies such as McDonald's stating they would not be selling a unique product just for New York customers but would implement a nationwide or worldwide change.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diet_and_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Diet and heart disease">Diet and heart disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_crisis" title="Health crisis">Health crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Interesterified_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Interesterified fat">Interesterified fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydrogenated_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogenated fat">Hydrogenated fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Margarine" title="Margarine">Margarine</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.transfatsolutions.com">"Welcome to TransFatSolutions.com powered by Bunge"</a>. Transfatsolutions.com. Retrieved 14 July 2011.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFUrban2014" class="citation journal cs1">Urban LE (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2014/14_0202.htm">"Temporal Trends in Fast-Food Restaurant Energy, Sodium, Saturated Fat, and Trans Fat Content, United States, 1996–2013"</a>. Preventing Chronic Disease. 11: E229. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5888%2Fpcd11.140202">10.5888/pcd11.140202</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-1151">1545-1151</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4283359">4283359</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25551184">25551184</a>.</cite>

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</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDijkstraHamiltonWolf2008" class="citation book cs1">Dijkstra A, Hamilton RJ, Wolf H, eds. (2008). Trans Fatty Acids. Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4051-5691-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJangJungMin2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jang ES, Jung MY, Min DB (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217185908/http://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/27B49B9B-EA63-4D73-BAB4-42FEFCD72C68/0/crfsfsv4n1p00220030ms20040577.pdf">"Hydrogenation for Low Trans and High Conjugated Fatty Acids"</a> (PDF). Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/27B49B9B-EA63-4D73-BAB4-42FEFCD72C68/0/crfsfsv4n1p00220030ms20040577.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 December 2008.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/trans_fat" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/trans fat">trans fat</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voicemagazine.org/articles/articledisplay.php?ART=5145">"Ban the Trans: These Sorry Lipids Should Go Away"</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cspinet.org/transfat/">Center for Science in the Public Interest Trans Fat Page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/types-of-fat/transfats/">Harvard School of Public Health webpage on trans-fat</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131026212809/https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm053479.htm">"Labeling & Nutrition – Guidance for Industry: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims, Health Claims; Small Entity Compliance Guide"</a>. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. August 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/small-entity-compliance-guide-trans-fatty-acids-nutrition-labeling-nutrient-content-claims-and">the original</a> on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2014.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030812191803/http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/03-17525.htm">Federal Register – 68 FR 41433 11 July 2003: Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims, and Health Claims</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_lipids124" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_lipids124" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Saturation: <a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">Saturated fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsaturated_fat" title="Unsaturated fat">Unsaturated fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Monounsaturated_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Monounsaturated fatty acid">Monounsaturated fatty acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyunsaturated_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyunsaturated fatty acid">Polyunsaturated fatty acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acid</a></li>

<li>Other: <a href="Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geometry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">Omega−3 fatty acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Omega-6_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">Omega−6 fatty acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Omega-9_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-9 fatty acid">Omega−9 fatty acid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">Arachidonic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandins</a></li>

<li><a href="Prostacyclin" title="Prostacyclin">Prostacyclin</a></li>

<li><a href="Thromboxane" title="Thromboxane">Thromboxane</a></li>

<li><a href="Leukotriene" title="Leukotriene">Leukotrienes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caprylic_acid" title="Caprylic acid">Caprylic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Capric_acid" title="Capric acid">Capric acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Lauric_acid" title="Lauric acid">Lauric acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Myristic_acid" title="Myristic acid">Myristic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Palmitic_acid" title="Palmitic acid">Palmitic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Stearic_acid" title="Stearic acid">Stearic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Arachidic_acid" title="Arachidic acid">Arachidic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Behenic_acid" title="Behenic acid">Behenic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Lignoceric_acid" title="Lignoceric acid">Lignoceric acid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Glyceride" title="Glyceride">Glycerides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Monoglyceride" title="Monoglyceride">Monoglyceride</a></li>

<li><a href="Diglyceride" title="Diglyceride">Diglyceride</a></li>

<li><a href="Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">Triglyceride</a>

<ul><li><a href="Triheptanoin" title="Triheptanoin">Triheptanoin</a></li>

<li><a href="Trimyristin" title="Trimyristin">Trimyristin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tripalmitin" title="Tripalmitin">Tripalmitin</a></li>

<li><a href="Stearin" title="Stearin">Tristearin</a></li>

<li><a href="Linolein" title="Linolein">Trilinolein</a></li>

<li><a href="Triolein" title="Triolein">Triolein</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">Phospholipids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phosphatidylserine" title="Phosphatidylserine">Phosphatidylserine</a></li>

<li><a href="Phosphatidylinositol" title="Phosphatidylinositol">Phosphatidylinositol</a></li>

<li><a href="Phosphatidylethanolamine" title="Phosphatidylethanolamine">Phosphatidyl ethanolamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiolipin" title="Cardiolipin">Cardiolipin</a></li>

<li><a href="Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine" title="Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine">Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sphingolipid" title="Sphingolipid">Sphingolipids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ceramide" title="Ceramide">Ceramide</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Steroid" title="Steroid">Steroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li>

<li><a href="Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex steroids</a></li>

<li><a href="Secosteroid" title="Secosteroid">Secosteroids</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cardiovascular_disease_(vessels)151" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cardiovascular_disease_(vessels)151" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a> (vessels)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artery" title="Artery">Arteries</a>, <a href="Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arterioles</a> and <a href="Capillary" title="Capillary">capillaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arteritis" title="Arteritis">Arteritis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aortitis" title="Aortitis">Aortitis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Thromboangiitis_obliterans" title="Thromboangiitis obliterans">Buerger's disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Arteriosclerosis" title="Arteriosclerosis">Arteriosclerosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</a>

<li><a href="Fatty_streak" title="Fatty streak">Fatty streak</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheroma" title="Atheroma">Atheroma</a></li>

<li><a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxycholesterol" title="Oxycholesterol">Oxycholesterol</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Monckeberg's_arteriosclerosis" title="Monckeberg's arteriosclerosis">Monckeberg's arteriosclerosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyaline_arteriolosclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaline arteriolosclerosis">Hyaline arteriolosclerosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperplastic_arteriolosclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis">Hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Peripheral_artery_disease" title="Peripheral artery disease">Peripheral artery disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stenosis" title="Stenosis">Stenosis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carotid_artery_stenosis" title="Carotid artery stenosis">Carotid artery stenosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Renal_artery_stenosis" title="Renal artery stenosis">Renal artery stenosis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aortoiliac_occlusive_disease" title="Aortoiliac occlusive disease">Aortoiliac occlusive disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_limb_ischemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical limb ischemia">Critical limb ischemia</a></li>

<li><a href="Degos_disease" title="Degos disease">Degos disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Erythromelalgia" title="Erythromelalgia">Erythromelalgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibromuscular_dysplasia" title="Fibromuscular dysplasia">Fibromuscular dysplasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hepatic_artery_thrombosis" title="Hepatic artery thrombosis">Hepatic artery thrombosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermittent_claudication" title="Intermittent claudication">Intermittent claudication</a></li>

<li><a href="Raynaud's_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Raynaud's phenomenon">Raynaud's phenomenon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">Aneurysm</a> / <a href="Dissection_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissection (medical)">dissection</a> / <a href="Pseudoaneurysm" title="Pseudoaneurysm">pseudoaneurysm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>torso: <a href="Aortic_aneurysm" title="Aortic aneurysm">Aortic aneurysm</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abdominal_aortic_aneurysm" title="Abdominal aortic aneurysm">Abdominal aortic aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Thoracic_aortic_aneurysm" title="Thoracic aortic aneurysm">Thoracic aortic aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Aneurysm_of_sinus_of_Valsalva" title="Aneurysm of sinus of Valsalva">Aneurysm of sinus of Valsalva</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_dissection" title="Aortic dissection">Aortic dissection</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_rupture" title="Aortic rupture">Aortic rupture</a></li>

<li><a href="Coronary_artery_aneurysm" title="Coronary artery aneurysm">Coronary artery aneurysm</a></li>

<li>head / neck

<ul><li><a href="Intracranial_aneurysm" title="Intracranial aneurysm">Intracranial aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Intracranial_berry_aneurysm" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracranial berry aneurysm">Intracranial berry aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Carotid_artery_dissection" title="Carotid artery dissection">Carotid artery dissection</a></li>

<li><a href="Vertebral_artery_dissection" title="Vertebral artery dissection">Vertebral artery dissection</a></li>

<li><a href="Familial_aortic_dissection" title="Familial aortic dissection">Familial aortic dissection</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vascular_malformation" title="Vascular malformation">Vascular malformation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arteriovenous_fistula" title="Arteriovenous fistula">Arteriovenous fistula</a></li>

<li><a href="Arteriovenous_malformation" title="Arteriovenous malformation">Arteriovenous malformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Telangiectasia" title="Telangiectasia">Telangiectasia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hereditary_hemorrhagic_telangiectasia" title="Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia">Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_essential_telangiectasia" title="Generalized essential telangiectasia">Generalized essential telangiectasia</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nevus#Vascular_nevus" title="Nevus">Vascular nevus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cherry_hemangioma" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry hemangioma">Cherry hemangioma</a></li>

<li><a href="Halo_nevus" title="Halo nevus">Halo nevus</a></li>

<li><a href="Spider_angioma" title="Spider angioma">Spider angioma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phlebitis" title="Phlebitis">Phlebitis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Venous_thrombosis" title="Venous thrombosis">Venous thrombosis</a> / <a href="Thrombophlebitis" title="Thrombophlebitis">Thrombophlebitis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>primarily lower limb

<ul><li><a href="Deep_vein_thrombosis" title="Deep vein thrombosis">Deep vein thrombosis</a></li></ul></li>

<li>abdomen

<ul><li><a href="Hepatic_veno-occlusive_disease" title="Hepatic veno-occlusive disease">Hepatic veno-occlusive disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Budd%E2%80%93Chiari_syndrome" title="Budd–Chiari syndrome">Budd–Chiari syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="May%E2%80%93Thurner_syndrome" title="May–Thurner syndrome">May–Thurner syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal_vein_thrombosis" title="Portal vein thrombosis">Portal vein thrombosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Renal_vein_thrombosis" title="Renal vein thrombosis">Renal vein thrombosis</a></li></ul></li>

<li>upper limb / torso

<ul><li><a href="Mondor's_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondor's disease">Mondor's disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Paget%E2%80%93Schroetter_disease" title="Paget–Schroetter disease">Paget–Schroetter disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">Pulmonary embolism</a></li></ul></li>

<li>head

<ul><li><a href="Cerebral_venous_sinus_thrombosis" title="Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis">Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Post-thrombotic_syndrome" title="Post-thrombotic syndrome">Post-thrombotic syndrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Varicose_veins" title="Varicose veins">Varicose veins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gastric_varices" title="Gastric varices">Gastric varices</a></li>

<li><a href="Portacaval_anastomosis" title="Portacaval anastomosis">Portacaval anastomosis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Caput_medusae" title="Caput medusae">Caput medusae</a></li>

<li><a href="Esophageal_varices" title="Esophageal varices">Esophageal varices</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemorrhoid" title="Hemorrhoid">Hemorrhoid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Varicocele" title="Varicocele">Varicocele</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chronic_venous_insufficiency" title="Chronic venous insufficiency">Chronic venous insufficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Chronic_cerebrospinal_venous_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency">Chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Superior_vena_cava_syndrome" title="Superior vena cava syndrome">Superior vena cava syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Inferior_vena_cava_syndrome" title="Inferior vena cava syndrome">Inferior vena cava syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Venous_ulcer" title="Venous ulcer">Venous ulcer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arteries or veins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angiopathy" title="Angiopathy">Angiopathy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Macroangiopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroangiopathy">Macroangiopathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Microangiopathy" title="Microangiopathy">Microangiopathy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Embolism" title="Embolism">Embolism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">Pulmonary embolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cholesterol_embolism" title="Cholesterol embolism">Cholesterol embolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradoxical_embolism" title="Paradoxical embolism">Paradoxical embolism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Thrombosis" title="Thrombosis">Thrombosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasculitis" title="Vasculitis">Vasculitis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">Blood pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hypertensive_heart_disease" title="Hypertensive heart disease">Hypertensive heart disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertensive_emergency" title="Hypertensive emergency">Hypertensive emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertensive_nephropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertensive nephropathy">Hypertensive nephropathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Essential_hypertension" title="Essential hypertension">Essential hypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="Secondary_hypertension" title="Secondary hypertension">Secondary hypertension</a>

<ul><li><a href="Renovascular_hypertension" title="Renovascular hypertension">Renovascular hypertension</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Benign_hypertension" title="Benign hypertension">Benign hypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_hypertension" title="Pulmonary hypertension">Pulmonary hypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="Systolic_hypertension" title="Systolic hypertension">Systolic hypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="White_coat_hypertension" title="White coat hypertension">White coat hypertension</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypotension" title="Hypotension">Hypotension</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">Orthostatic hypotension</a></li>

<li><a href="Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">Shock (circulatory)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-17" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Trans_fat&oldid=1301026361">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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